Prostitution as a Social Problem Research Paper

Prostitution as a Social Problem - Research Paper Example This conversation stresses thatâ there are three classes of prostitutes.â Those who have a place with the top layer are the tactful call-young ladies for the affluent.â Those in the white collar class are the whores who work in strip clubs and back rub parlors and who offer private cabin services.â Those in the least layer are the road walkers which incorporate the mistresses, hookers and nightwalkers.â The whores in the most minimal layer are the ones plagued by most problems.â Because they are not under any oversight, they are inclined to brutality and at a high medicinal services chance because of hazardous sexual contact with unscreened clients.â These are the whores who are needing much help.This paper examines that prostitution includes a great deal of personalities.â Foremost among the gathering are the prostitutes.â In the U.S., the normal time of passage into prostitution is 14 . This gathering which assumes the jobs of whores incorporates kids or youngsters , or grown-ups who went into frameworks of prostitution as kids or teens.â A greater part likewise incorporates the Third World ladies and children.â They are the ones who are regularly focuses of traffickers.â These ladies and kids are subjugated and forced and brought to western countries for use in houses of ill-repute and back rub parlors, or as mail request brides.â In some Third World nations, â€Å"sex tourism† is uncontrolled on the grounds that it offers modest prostitution. The subsequent gathering engaged with prostitution are the pimps.â About 80-90% of prostitution includes a pimp.... Principal among the gathering are the whores. In the U.S., the normal period of section into prostitution is 14 (SAGE, n.d.). This gathering which assumes the jobs of whores incorporates kids or youngsters, or grown-ups who went into frameworks of prostitution as kids or adolescents. A larger part likewise incorporates the Third World ladies and kids. They are the ones who are frequently focuses of dealers. These ladies and youngsters are oppressed and pressured and brought to western countries for use in houses of ill-repute and back rub parlors, or as international wives. In some Third World nations, â€Å"sex tourism† is uncontrolled on the grounds that it offers modest prostitution. The subsequent gathering engaged with prostitution are the pimps. Around 80-90% of prostitution includes a pimp. They are either male or female with various ethnic foundations and economic wellbeing. Pimps â€Å"control the individuals in prostitution through intimidation, power, illicit drug use, or the misuse of financial, physical or enthusiastic vulnerability† (SAGE, n.d.). A significant gathering that is engaged with the arrangement of prostitution is the â€Å"demand† side, which means the â€Å"johns†, â€Å"tricks†, clients and kid sexual abusers. These are the individuals who are into erotic entertainment and who go to strip clubs. Different gatherings who are casualties of the arrangement of prostitution are the transgender, lesbian, androgynous and gay youth. On account of the separation that they experience from their families and networks, they are regularly the objectives of pimps. Since certain social orders despite everything discover this gathering unsatisfactory, prostitution turns into their choice for financial endurance. Law implementation offices and administrators have a task to carry out too in prostitution. They are the gathering who can control, kill or add to the issue of prostitution in the

Acids, Bases and Salts

A compound substance (commonly, a destructive or sharp tasting fluid) that kills antacids, breaks down certain metals, and turns litmus red. Ionic Dissociation: Dissociation in science and organic chemistry is a general procedure where ionic mixes (edifices, or salts) discrete or split into littler particles, particles, or radicals, as a rule in a reversible way. Quality of Acids: The quality of anâ acidâ refers to its capacity or propensity to lose a proton. There are not many solid acids. A solid corrosive is one that totally ionizes inâ water. Interestingly a feeble corrosive just somewhat dissociates.Examples of solid acidsâ areâ hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydroiodic acid (HI), hydrobromic acid (HBr), perchloric acid (HClO4), nitric acid (HNO3) andâ sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In water each of these basically ionizes 100%. The more grounded a corrosive is, the more effectively it loses a proton, H+. Two key factors that add to the simplicity of deprotonation ar e theâ polarityâ of the Hâ€A bond and the size of particle A, which decides the quality of the Hâ€A bond. Corrosive qualities are likewise frequently talked about as far as the strength of the conjugate base. Sulfonic acids, which are natural oxyacids, are aâ classâ of solid acids.A normal model is toluenesulfonic acidâ (tosylic corrosive). In contrast to sulfuric corrosive itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. Superacidsâ are acids more grounded than 100% sulfuric corrosive. Instances of superacids arefluoroantimonic acid,â magic acidâ andâ perchloric corrosive. Superacids can for all time protonate water to give ionic, crystallineâ hydroniumâ â€Å"salts†. Basicity of an Acid: Basicity of a corrosive alludes to theâ number of replaceable hydrogen atomsâ in one particle of the corrosive. 3 basic kinds of Basicity of a corrosive Monobasic Definition: 1 atom produceâ 1 H+ ionâ upon separation Example: HCl, HNO3 Dissociation Equation: HCl(aq) â€&gt ; H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)Dibasic Definition: 1 particle produceâ 2 H+â ion upon separation Example: H2SO4 Dissociation Equation: Figure it out yourself!! Tribasic Definition: 1 particle produceâ 3 H+â ion upon separation Example: H3PO4 Dissociation Equation: H3PO4(aq) â€> 3H+(aq) + PO4 3-(aq) Alkali: A salt is a base in a watery arrangement or a synthetic compound which is water dissolvable and kills or foams with acids and turns litmus blue; regularly, a scathing or destructive substance of this sort, for example, lime or pop. Instances of soluble bases incorporate NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide), NH3(Ammonia) and KOH (Potassium Hydroxide).Salt: Any concoction compound framed from the response of a corrosive with a base, with all or part of the hydrogen of the corrosive supplanted by a metal or other cation. Bases: Aâ baseâ inâ chemistryâ is a substance that can acceptâ hydrogen ionsâ (protons) or all the more for the most part, give electron sets. A solvent base is allude d to as anâ alkaliâ if it contains and discharges hydroxide ions (OH? ) quantitatively. The Bronsted-Lowry theoryâ defines bases asâ proton(hydrogen particle) acceptors, while the more broad Lewis hypothesis characterizes bases asâ electron pair benefactors, permitting other Lewis acidsâ than protons to be included.Bases can beâ thoughtâ of as the synthetic inverse ofâ acids. A response between a corrosive and base is calledâ neutralization. Bases and acids are viewed as alternate extremes in light of the fact that the impact of a corrosive is to increment theâ hydronium ion (H3O+) concentration in water, though bases lessen this fixation. Bases and acids are typicallyâ foundâ inâ aqueous solutionâ forms. Fluid arrangements of bases respond with watery arrangements of acids to produceâ waterâ andâ salts Â

Does MIT Offer Application Fee Waivers

Does MIT Offer Application Fee Waivers Does MIT Offer Application Fee Waivers? In a word, yes. As a matter of philosophy, MIT is committed to the idea of equal access to higher education for everyone. It has been our experience that the cost of applying to MIT can be a barrier for those of modest financial means or those who are experiencing situational financial difficulties. Why do we charge an application fee anyway? Between staff time and materials, the costs of running an admissions office are vast, and the application fee only covers a small percentage of the costs associated with processing your application. The application fee also discourages those students who have no real interest in MIT from applying (the ones who do not wish to attend but just want to see if they can get in). How do I know if I should request a fee waiver? Your decision to request a fee waiver is not unlike the many parts of the admission process in that, here too, you are being held to the highest of ethical standards. Just as we expect you to not plagiarize your essay, we expect that you will not misrepresent your ability to pay the application fee. It is safe to say that you should apply for an application fee waiver if you fall into any of the following categories: You receive free or reduced lunch at school Your family receives public assistance You meet the criteria set by the College Board as requirements for a fee waiver Situational financial difficulties are currently imposing substantial or undue hardships upon your family In many ways only you and your family truly know if applying for an application fee waiver is the right thing to do. We suggest that you start by respecting the intention of this process. There is a big difference between I cant afford to pay and Id rather not pay. If youre not sure, we recommend consulting your Guidance Counselor, the College Board website, or other adults outside of your family who can help you to determine your need for a waiver. Fee Waiver: Selfless Good or Selfish Bad? Ive spent the majority of this entry defining who should apply and why. Some of you may come away thinking that we offer this application fee wavier but dont really want to give it out. Not true at all! But you do need to take the initiative here. Consider this lesson one about MIT: Self Advocacy. Ask any current or past student and he or she will tell you that those who are most successful at MIT are those who have no compunction about asking for help. If you need the waiver and dont request one is that selfless good? No. There are many scenarios which one can concoct as a reason for a fee waiver. Here are some examples on which we take a dim view: I am applying to 25 schools and I cant afford MITs application fee I need the new 160-gig i-Pod I need to save for the Senior Trip/Senior Prom Um, no. So what does all of this really mean? Its simple: If you need a fee waiver for the right reasons and you request one, chances are very good that well grant you one. Action Steps for the Fee Waiver You can write directly to MIT with a letter from your counselor or another school official requesting an application fee waiver. While that works for MIT, what about the other schools to which you are applying? Do you really want to write a bunch of different letters requesting a fee waiver? Earlier I suggested that you visit the College Board site for general information and overall criteria for fee-waivers in general. While you are at the College Board site I suggest that you also register through the College Board itself for a fee waiver that will be accepted by most colleges. (MIT actually prefers the College Board form.)

Intellectual Outspoken Self Motivated Will Definitely Become A Good Leader Business Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2972 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? Skills Required For Effective Management Basically there are two types of skills which are necessary for having a wonderful kind of the performance and an upgraded situation in the future as well. There are known to be the organizational skills, these are also known to be the business skills and secondly the relational skills, these are known to be the behavior of the individual. There is a need of the view of the own capabilities, i.e. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Intellectual Outspoken Self Motivated Will Definitely Become A Good Leader Business Essay" essay for you Create order your skills, your temperament and the CIP as well. All of these things are effective for that person who is new or old to the field. The better an individual is able to seek different kind of the generic and the technical competencies for himself, the best kinds of the results might be ascertained through the help of it. Later on, these generic and the technical competencies would become the part of the relational and the organizational skills. Therefore, there is a need to take some better kind of look over it. Example; For example; if I am a TQM or the operation manager, then there might be a requirement of the some kinds of skills, which are necessary to meet the special kind of the goal of the individual as well as the organization. Effective Three Personal And Professional Skills From the above table; it is clear that if there is an intellectual, outspoken and the self motivated kind of the skills being inhibited by the individual then he will definitely become a good leader, who seems to be innovative in nature and easy to handle the different kinds of the disturbances, which occur in a process. Contribution Cycle Showing The Targeting Of The Personal And The Organizational Goals And Objectives Here is the contribution cycle, here 3 ds and the 3 ps are being described. These abet in making a proper kind of the achievement of the personal goals and the organizational goals as well ; as shown in the figure below. One of the most important things which are to be remembered while targeting the main goals is the capacity of the individual. There is always a need to see that whether the individual might be able to get the exact kind of the response in return or not. You have to see that how the different kinds of the progression procedures might be ascertained through the help of this kind of the cycle. The better you are able to make the amendments in this cycle. The best kind of the options of the choices you might be able to choose over here. Answer # 2 Personal Skill Audit There is a need to do the personal skill audit. That abet in knowing that what are the different kinds of the discrepancies which are to be met yet, through the help of the skills of the individual (i.e. his own self). The intellectual skills help the manager to get good moves. This is because of the fact that, he might be able to control his stress level. Not only that, there would be easiness in building up different kind of the relationship with the other people in his professional and the actual life. The outspoken skills of the manager, use to make his word of mouth most effective professionally. The individual might be able to handle a number of the problems, with a proper kind of the confidence and because of it, the people are able to have a special kind of the trust on the words of that person. Thirdly, the self motivated means that, there is a necessity of the self direction, which is being carried out through the help of it. Detailed Action Plan This abet in letting the people known about the impact of the learning styles over personal development; as shown in the diagram The impacts on the personal development are as follows There is an increase in the self esteem. The self confidence of the individual will become higher. There would be less reliability of the individual towards the other You might be able to see an adopting attitude in your own self. You would always try to have a progressive approach. There would be an increased devotion and motivation level. Your priorities might become as self reliance. You would become more determined towards goals. There would be some kind of the knowledge about the strengths and the weaknesses, so that the future challenges can be met easily. There would be some chances of betterment. Through the positive approach, you might be able to do the removal of a number of flaws. This PD, helps a lot in learning that how to learn from the self reviewi ng? This development procedure, use to teach that there is a need to have the improvement of the employability, it is being preferred in almost every kind of profession, for future development. There would be an improvement in current skills. You would be able to follow the leading strategies, which would let you move towards the inspiring creative leadership, easily. One of the most important things is that, if you will be following the personal development model, then at the end, you will definitely be beneficiated through the help of the achievement of the goals, as I have discussed the whole process above. It is very simple and easy procedure to make different kinds of aims and tasks. The better you are able to set the goals, the best kinds of the results might be achieved through the help of it. You need to set some of the key factors in your process, who are helpful in driving the whole process easily. Impact Of This Learning Program Yes this program will definitely be beneficial in the future as well. There are different kinds of the impacts which are being caused by this program i.e. There is an improvement in the performance management The role accountability would become easier for the manager. Sometimes, there is a need to see the things very narrowly, the critical reflection might be availed through the help of it. Practice evaluation is there, for the increase of the experience of an individual. There would be a forward step towards the positive career development. You might be able to get the ways to deal with stress management. These learning programs would be a mirror of personal reflexiability and emotional response towards yourself. You would be able to come to know about professional interface easily. There would be an enhancement in the personal effectiveness. You would move towards excellence in working capacities which lead towards achievement of goals You will c ome to know about the easy steps towards the performance assessment and multiple kinds of make over, which would be helpful in achieving the long term goals. You would be able to judge your competency level. There would be an impactful interaction of the people towards you. That would be a different kind of the experience, through which you get to learn about the tactics which people are using. Not only that, there would be a direct kind of the impact of the number of things. Three Major Impacts The three major impacts would be; Here you might be glad to know that, the organizational development would leads towards the successful achievement of your own self. Where as, the employee engagement helps in increasing the motivational level of the individual. The local and the international business practices help in doing the market development and the market penetration Strengths At The Start Of The Program In the start of the program there were different kinds of the strengths i.e. The self esteem level Good planner Highly devoted towards the achievement of the goals Weaknesses At The End Of The Program Poor stress management International progression is being required. Strengths At The End Of The Program Higher level of self confidence Improvement in the stress management There is a market development and the market penetration over there. Organizational and personal development improves Weaknesses At The End Of The Program Still need some coaching techniques, in order to remove the biasness from different kinds of processes. After having a thorough analysis of the strengths and the weaknesses, you might be known that it is one of the best kind effectiveness of manager to manage each and every kind of the situation easily. The better the individual is able to handle the whole process, the best kind of the results might be achieved at the end. The basic purpose of this PDM is to make some personal kind of the developments. All of these kinds of the developments are helpful in making the individual more strengthened towards his work. Not only that, there is a positive kind of the attitude after having a thorough kind of the knowledge about the weaknesses and the strengths. There is always a need to remove the different kinds of the difficulties and the flaws which are becoming the cause of the hurdles in the aim of the goal and objectives earnings. The better the individual is able to make differe nt supportive actions, the knowhow and the audit of the skills, the best kinds of the results might be achieved through the help of it. Answer #3; For the purpose of the personal development of the individual, there is a necessity to have such type of model, through which the individual is able to ascertain a number of goals and objectives matching with his position along with the responsibilities which are concerned with him. Here are six necessary steps. According to me, all of these are necessary to be met. Firstly, there is a need to do the clarification; this is because of the fact that there is a need to have the categorization and the listing of all those things which you are considering as the goals and the objectives i.e. I have three main objectives which are to be achieved as a manager. The first one is to resolve out all those kinds of the problems which are becoming a hurdle in aiming at my objectives, the strong building of the decision making strategy and the most important i.e. the earning of reputable success and profit (this seems to be beneficial for both me and the company as well, because I might be ab le to get my promotion and increment in my income and facilitation of home as well). Secondly, after noting down each and every aspect, there is a need of the prioritizing. That abet in getting the dates assigned to each and every important goal, not only that, according to those the individual might be able to assemble the number of the things according to their importance. The third step, which is linked with the PDM, is to make a special kind of the planning for the sake of meeting these desired goals. There is a need to define the purpose, goal and the action steps. Where as, in the forth step, there is an implementation on these action, they abet in notifying each and every kind of situation. In the fifth step of the PDM, on my choice, there is a column of coaching. This means that, there is a need to make some kind of follow-up of all those activities which are being performed and which are to be performed yet. That is helpful in making the things under mutual concern . At the end, there is a need of the reviewing. A lot of people think that, when you have completed all the things, then you know that each step and task is being met apparently, then why there is a need to meet every thing individually, for that reason, I have make some kind of research, after that I come to know that, this is necessary in order to make the understanding about each and every thing. If you are able to make the judgments about numerous things, there you will definitely be able to take good care of the weaknesses and find out all those ways through which you may get them cleared easily. As shown in the diagram; On Going Process Of PDM In the on going process, there is always a need to make some kind of the visualization i.e. an idea that from where you might be taking the start in order to achieve you goals that will give you a definite and proper kind of the direction. The planning will be helpful over here. Through that, you might be able to think that what are the future aspects, which are linked with the progression of the company, if there is occurring any kind of the problem in that, then there might be a need to find out some kind of the solution in that case. That would abet in determining the goals of the organization and the individual personally, as well. There is a need to assign a proper kind of the estimated timings that would better give you the exact frame work in which you might be able to finish the work. There is always a need to have a proper kind of focus and the balance, and that can only be achieved if the individual use to have interest in his or her job. While, working on the achievem ent of the goals, there is learning from the each process, which you can use in the future as your experience. If you are feeling a positive response, then there might be a motivational unbiased kind of the approach, which you are getting through the help of it. That will definitely impact your work values. Implementing all the specified kind of actions which are specified for the sake of goals achievement, will definitely be helpful in clarifying all the commitments and having a wonderful kind of the results at the end. How To Determine Short, Medium And The Long Term Goals There is a need to determine the short, medium and the long term goals. This is because of the fact that, they are helpful in meeting the basic kind of the necessity that what is the individual seeking for. For example; I am the manager of the company, then my three goals would be directly and indirectly linked with my aim of having a successful achievement at the end i.e. Short Term Goals(causes of problems) Medium Term Goals(Style to change/ decision making strategy) Long Term Goals(Effectiveness and efficiency for the sake of profit) Identifying And Targeting The Dates There is always a need to short list the time spam. If that is so, then things might become more easier for you. For example; I need to short list my three goals; for that reason I need to do explain it with the help of an example; I am the TQM manager, if I am able to know about the step by step problem, then things would become easier in that case. The quality of the product would be determined. Not only that, if there is any kind of the flaw, then that can be captured at that specified time. If that is on the daily basis, then that would be preferable. If not so, then you may assign one week time period for the manufacturing of the goods or the supplies which are to be made available in the market. After that, there can be a change in the style or the strategies of the decision making. That would be definitely be helpful in making the decisions. If the total time spam of the delivery of the whole bundle of products is one month, then after one month, you would be earning a hu ge amount of profit because of the proper care of the quality and the fulfillment of the needs of the customers as well. You can say that, there would be an easiness of the achievement of some extra kind of bonuses or increments in future, as there is a positive step towards the success of the company. Benefits Of Targeting Dates Did you ever notified that what are the benefits of targeting the dates, let me tell you about them; a) Monitoring The monitoring use to help in; Interacting with others. Giving a special kind of the know-how about the business skills. It uses to give the description about the management support. There is always a need to have some related work of coaching, you might be able to achieve that as well. The task would be achieved timely by the manger. There would be a keen observation about the team work. Sometimes, there is a need of the personal awareness about a number of on going aspects that would also be achieved easily. b) Review The reviewing use to help in different matters i.e. If there is a need of any kind of amendments then it can be made easily. The whole process can work smoothly in order to become successful Another thing, if there is a review of the timely work capabilities, then there would be an increase in the self esteem and the self confidence of the individual. That will make the person more directed toward things and motivated as well. One more thing, which is being required by almost any kind of the manager is the control over the stress. That would definitely be achieved through the help of it. There is always a requirement of the most understanding and soluble kind of the attitude of the manager, the more he is directed towards the handling of each and every kind of the situation, the better might be the results which are being achieved in the future. For that reason, there is always a need to make some kind of the reviews, so that you get to know about the exact situation.

Compare and Contrast Texting vs Calling - 924 Words

31542 June 25, 2013 Compare and Contrast: Texting VS Calling What would we do without cell phones? Have you ever tried to leave your phone at home just to see how much it’s really needed in your everyday life? I have and it’s a lot harder than you think. Technology has grown so much in the past ten years then you would ever know. From little black and white flip phones to tablets with apps, games, music and pretty much anything you could ever want just in the palm of your hand. In 1973 the first cell phone was invented, and it took twenty-two years after that, 1995, to invent text messaging. Now it seems as though text messaging is among the most popular way of communication. Although texting and phone calls aim to accomplish the†¦show more content†¦The main advantage would be unlimited minutes for incoming and outgoing calls that could help save on your monthly statement bill. If you’re on a family plan this could definitely be a plus especially if you have a big family. Have you ever had to be put on hol d by the cable company, for example, and you waited ten minutes for a representative to pick up, and that moment you are waiting for the solution and beep, beep, beep the call was dropped. Nothing can be more annoying than having to call back and start all over, worried it will happen again. Having no service, just like when texting, and a call is needing to be made can cause anger/frustration in a person. Driving while talking on the phone can be just as distracting as texting, having only one hand on the wheel engaged in your conversation can cause distractions to paying attention to other drivers around you. In some states talking on a cell phone while driving can get you a ticket and fined. Texting VS Calling can only be judged by each individuals experience and preference. A teenager will most likely choose texting, to avoid awkward phone conversations, whereas, an old fashioned mom or dad would choose to call or vice versa, everyone is entitled to their own opinion. Per sonally I enjoy using both, I will text when bored and want to prolong a conversation, and call if I need a quick and easyShow MoreRelatedComparison of the 4 Main Smartphone Operating Systems16546 Words   |  67 Pagesmore also smartphone’s OS delivers the framework to go beyond simply making a call, allowing it to run productively and media playing applications as well as operate on social networks such as Twitter and Facebook.  The mobile phone is not just a calling device these days; it has evolved tremendously thanks to the operating systems (OS). Scott Cromar (2010) Mobile phones until sometime back, was determined only by the manufacturer it came from, in the past one would go to the store and ask forRead MoreDigi Strategic Management17488 Words   |  70 Pagesscreen in 3rd Quarter of 2009 2 3 6 market growth, DiGi managed to defend its revenue market share (compare to 2008) when Maxis lost substantial share to Celcom and some to DiGi (refer below figure from DiGi‟s 13th Annual General Meeting on 13 May 2010) despite having less 3G coverage. However, notice that numbers exclude broadband. 2nd Quarter of 2010 Updates The subsequent tables compare and contrast the same parameters (subscribers, revenue and EBITA) of Maxis, Celcom and DiGi in 2nd Quarter ofRead MoreFactors Influencing the Adoption of Mobile Banking49628 Words   |  199 Pagesmillion times per month. It was found that texting is not only used for general conversation, and greetings in New Zealand, but also for solving embarrassing situations such as firing employees, marriage proposals, asking for a date, and even gathering evidence of cheating. Paul Brislen, of Vodafone NZ said Kiwis were also world leaders when it came to downloading tunes to their handsets (Hudson, 2008). This implied that New Zealanders are more likely to use texting than many other populations in the worldRead MoreMarketing and E-commerce Business65852 Words   |  264 Pagesimportant new developments in each annual edition. You will not find a more current book for a course offered for the 2014 academic year. Many other texts are already six months to a year out of date before they even reach the printer. This text, in contrast, reflects extensive research through October 2013, just weeks before the book hits the press. Real-World Business Firm Focus and Cases  From Akamai Technologies to Google, Microsoft, Apple, and Amazon, to Facebook, Twitter, and Tumblr, to NetflixRead MoreFactors Influencing the Adoption of Mobile Banking49642 Words   |  199 Pagesmillion times per month. It was found that texting is not only used for general conversation, and greetings in New Zealand, but also for solving embarrassing situations such as firing employees, marriage proposals, asking for a date, and even gathering evidence of cheating. Paul Brislen, of Vodafone NZ said Kiwis were also world leaders when it came to downloading tunes to their handsets (Hudson, 2008). This implied that New Zealanders are more likely to use texting than many other populations in the world

Gender Differences in Peer and Parental Inuences Body Image Disturbance Free Essays

string(66) " that is shown in adolescent girls and young women \(Rodin et al\." Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 33, No. 5, October 2004, pp. We will write a custom essay sample on Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In?uences: Body Image Disturbance or any similar topic only for you Order Now 421–429 ( C 2004) Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences: Body Image Disturbance, Self-Worth, and Psychological Functioning in Preadolescent Children Vicky Phares,1 Ari R. Steinberg,2 and J. Kevin Thompson3 Received April 17, 2003; revised January 20, 2004; accepted February 11, 2004 The connections between body image disturbance and psychological functioning have been well established in samples of older adolescent girls and young women. Little is known, however, about body image in younger children. In particular, little is known about possible gender differences in preadolescent children. The current study explored self-reported body image disturbance and psychological functioning in relation to peer and parental in? uences in 141 elementary school-aged girls and boys aged 8–11. Results suggest that girls are more concerned about dieting and are more preoccupied with their weight than are boys. Girls also reported a greater drive for thinness and a higher level of family history of eating concerns than did boys. Correlations suggested that girls’ experiences of body image concerns (body dissatisfaction, bulimia, and drive for thinness) were related to a number of factors (such as family history of eating concerns, peer in? uences, teasing, depression, and global self-worth) whereas boys’ experiences of body image concerns were related to fewer factors. On the basis of these ? ndings, the assessment and treatment of body image concerns in preadolescent children (especially girls) are of great importance. Implications for intervention and prevention programs are discussed. KEY WORDS: body image; peers; parents. The prevalence of weight and body image concerns among preadolescent children is overwhelming. Between 30 and 50% of adolescent girls are either concerned about their weight or are actually dieting (e. g. , Thompson and 1 Vicky Phares, Ph. D. is a Professor and Director of Clinical Training at the University of South Florida. She received her Ph. D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of Vermont. Her major research interests are fathers and developmental psychopathology. She recently published a textbook, Understanding Abnormal Child Psychology with Wiley and Sons. To whom correspondence should be addressed at University of South Florida, Department of Psychology, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, PCD 4118G, Tampa, Florida 33620; e-mail: phares@luna. cas. usf. edu. 2 Ari R. Steinberg, Ph. D. graduated from the University of South Florida, where she earned her M. A. in Psychology and her Ph. D. in Clinical Psychology. Her major research interests are cognitive and psychosocial correlates to the development of body image; e-mail: phares@luna. cas. usf. edu. 3 J. Kevin Thompson, Ph. D. is a Professor of Psychology at the University of South Florida. He received his Ph. D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of Georgia. His major research interests are body image and eating disorders. Smolak, 2001). Such concerns about size and/or appearance have been found to predict onset of eating disturbances prospectively (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Stice, 2001). Although most of the previous research on eating disorders has focused on adult women and adolescent girls, it has recently been shown that weight concerns and body image disturbance exist in younger girls and boys (Cusumano and Thompson, 2001; Field et al. 2001; Ricciardelli and McCabe, 2001; Ricciardelli et al. , 2000; VanderWal and Thelen, 2000). Self-esteem concerns appear to be related to body image disturbance in young children, but there does not appear to be a causal link between self-esteem and body image disturbance (Mendelson et al. , 1996). Speci? cally, body image disturbance and poor self-esteem appear to develop concurrently in young boys and girls. Given the se important issues, the current study attempted to examine the psychological, familial, and social correlates of weight concerns and eating disturbances in preadolescent girls and boys. 21 0047-2891/04/1000-0421/0 C 2004 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 422 BODY IMAGE AND DIETING BEHAVIOR IN ADOLESCENTS AND CHILDREN The connections between body image disturbance and psychological maladjustment in adolescence have been well documented. There appears to be pervasive concerns among adolescents with respect to their weight, body image, dieting, and eating behavior (Smolak and Levine, 2001; Thompson et al. , 1999). In fact, averageweight adolescent girls are almost as likely to be dieting as their overweight peers (Rodin et al. , 1985). These patterns are evident in both clinical and nonclinical samples. Bunnell et al. (1992) investigated body shape concerns among 5 samples of female adolescents: anorexia nervosa clients, bulimia nervosa clients, subclinical anorexia, subclinical bulimia, and noneating disordered females. They found that body shape dissatisfaction was a prominent concern for most adolescent girls regardless of their level of eating pathology. Thus, by the time of adolescence, the majority of girls have developed weight and body concerns and many have tried dieting or other strategies to alter their physical appearance. Although these issues have received less research attention in preadolescent children, many of the same patterns have emerged in studies of younger children. Children as young as 6 years old express dissatisfaction with their body and a substantial amount (40%) have attempted to lose weight (Thelen et al. , 1992). There is evidence that children as young as 7 are reliable in their reports of dieting (Kostanski and Gullone, 1999). In a sample of thirdthrough sixth-graders, children were very knowledgeable about weight control methods (Schur et al. , 2000). Body dissatisfaction appears to be related to dietary restraint rather than age. In a study that compared 9-year-olds and 14-year-olds, girls with highly restrained eating patterns in both age groups showed low body esteem, and discontent with their body shape and weight (Hill et al. , 1992). Consistent with research on adolescents and young adults, young girls tend to show this dissatisfaction to a greater extent than boys. In samples of children between the ages of 5 and 11 (Collins, 1991; Cusumano and Thompson, 2001; Williamson and Delin, 2001; Wood et al. 1996), girls reported signi? cantly greater body dissatisfaction than did boys. More girls than boys were dieting in a sample of 10–12 year olds (Sands et al. , 1997). Thus, the â€Å"normative discontent† that is shown in adolescent girls and young women (Rodin et al. You read "Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In?uences: Body Image Disturbance" in category "Papers" , 1985) appears to be present in younger g irls as well. FAMILIAL INFLUENCES ON BODY IMAGE A logical question relates to why these body image disturbances occur in such young children. Theories of Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson body image disturbance include biological, sociocultural, familial, and peer-related in? ences (Smolak and Levine, 2001; Steinberg and Phares, 2001). Recently, a great deal of attention has been focused on familial and peer in? uences in the development of body image. Regarding familial in? uences, 2 primary mechanisms have been proposed: parental modeling of dysfunctional eating attitudes and behavior, and parents’ in? uence over their children by direct transmission of weight-related attitudes and opinions, such as comments or teasing. There has been support for both mechanisms in adolescent samples. When compared with mothers of daughters in a nonclinical control group, mothers of adolescent girls with disordered eating patterns showed greater eating disturbance, had a longer history of dieting, and wanted their daughters to lose more weight (Pike and Rodin, 1991). Rieves and Cash (1996) found that daughters’ eating disturbances were related to their perceptions of maternal concern with appearance and preoccupation with being overweight. These studies suggest that adolescent girls may be modeling dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors from their parents. There is evidence that parents in? ence their adolescents’ eating disturbances and body image through direct transmission of weight-related attitudes and opinions. Thelen and Cormier (1995) found that mothers’ and fathers’ encouragement of weight control were related to daughters’ desire to be thinner, daughters’ weight, and dieting behaviors. When actual body weight was controlled statistically, only the relationship between daughters’ dieting and fathers’ encouragement to diet remained signi? cant. Direct parental comments about children’s weight had a strong relation with children’s body image, especially mothers’ comments about their daughters (Smolak et al. 1999). Thus, it appears that both maternal and paternal in? uences may be relevant to the development of body image concerns and related issues. These ? ndings suggest that parents can in? uence their attitudes and opinions of weight through direct transmission, although the relative salience of mothers versus fathers has yet to be established. Negative verbal commentary within the family, also known as teasing, has received attention recently. Teasing can be considered an indirect transmission of parental attitudes and opinions. In a sample of lder adolescent college students, parental teasing of females, but not of males, was related to body image dissatisfaction ( Schwartz et al. , 1999). In addition, higher levels of teasing and appearance-related feedback predicted higher levels of psychological disturbance. Taken together, these studies all point to the relationships between adolescents’ body image concerns and parental attitudes and behaviors. Few studies, however, have addressed these issues in younger children. Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences PEER INFLUENCES ON BODY IMAGE The same point can be made for peer in? uences on body image. Although signi? cant relationships have been found in samples of adolescents, few studies have explored these issues in younger children. When investigating adolescents, one study found that adolescents’ disturbed eating and weight concerns were related to the dieting and weight control strategies of peers as well as to the amount they reported talking with peers about dieting (Levine et al. , 1994). In addition, adolescent girls reported their peers as one of the primary sources of information on weight control and dieting (Desmond et al. , 1986). Adolescent girls, more so than adolescent boys, worried about their weight, ? ure, and popularity with peers (Wadden et al. , 1991). Negative verbal commentary by peers has been explored in relation to body image disturbance. Teasing by peers seems to have a strong in? uence on the development of eating and weight concerns (Rieves and Cash, 1996; Thompson, 1996; Thompson and Heinberg, 1993). Teasing by peers tends to be common durin g childhood with physical appearance and weight as the primary focus. Cash (1995) reported that 72% of college women recalled being teased as children, usually with respect to their facial features or body weight and shape. In a study of adolescent girls, Cattarin and Thompson (1994) found that teasing was a signi? cant predictor of overall appearance dissatisfaction above and beyond the in? uence of age, maturational status, and level of obesity. In one of the few studies done with children, Oliver and Thelen (1996) found that children’s perceptions of peers’ negative messages and increased likability by being thin in? uenced their body image and weight concerns. Overall, peers’ attitudes and teasing appear to in? uence body image concerns. Taken together, these studies suggest patterns of familial and peer in? ence on the development of body image concerns. Little is known, however, about the associations of these issues within young children. Even less is known about how familial and peer in? uences are related to body image concerns and psychological functioning in young girls versus young boys. THE CURRENT STUDY On the basis of the ? ndings with adolescent and young adult popul ations, the current study extends these research questions to preadolescent girls and boys. Because the majority of previous research was limited to maternal in? ences on body image (Phares, 1996), the current study will also extend this line of research to explore paternal in? uences on body image. It was hypothesized that gender effects would be revealed concerning young chil- 423 dren’s body image concerns, with young girls reporting more body dissatisfaction and weight-appearance-related concerns than young boys. It was expected that both girls and boys who reported higher levels of body image concerns would show more psychological problems as exhibited by higher levels of depression and lower levels of perceived competence. Both familial in? uences and peer in? ences were expected to be related to girls’ and boys’ body image and eating concerns. METHOD Participants A total of 141 children (64 boys and 77 girls) from two public elementary schools in a large urban area in the southeast participated in the study. On the basis of a power analysis (? level = 0. 05, power = 0. 80, and a medium effect size), it was determined that a minimum sample size of 64 boys and 64 girls would be adequate to test the hypotheses (Cohen, 1992). The mean age of the overall sample was 9. 23 years (SD = 1. 08) and did not differ between boys (M = 9. 31; SD = 1. 04) and girls (M = 9. 7; SD = 1. 12; t(139) = 0. 79; p = 0. 434). The sample was ethnically diverse (63. 1% Caucasian, 21. 3% African American, 12. 8% Hispanic/Latino/Latina, 0. 7% Asian American, and 2. 1% other). With respect to grade level, 14. 2% were in the second grade, 44. 0% were in the third grade, 27. 6% were in the fourth grade, and 14. 2% were in the ? fth grade. The distribution of girls and boys did not differ for race/ethnicity or for grade level ( ps 0. 05). A total of 77 mothers and 48 fathers participated in the study. Measures Family In? uences Two measures were used to assess func tioning within the family. The Perceptions of Teasing Scale (POTS) is a revised and extended version of the Physical Appearance Related Teasing Scale (Thompson et al. , 1995). The measure has been used with children as young as 10 years old, therefore, the 8- and 9-year-old participants in this study were younger than previous participants who completed the POTS. The Weight Teasing Scale, which consists of 6 questions concerned with the frequency of appearancerelated teasing, was used in the current study. Participants answered these questions for their mother and father separately, and scores were totaled for an overall frequency of parental teasing score. Higher numbers on this 5-point scale re? ect greater frequency of negative verbal commentary. Coef? cient ? s in the current study were adequate for 424 reports of mothers (0. 72) and fathers (0. 84). Note that only 24% of the children in this sample scored above a 0 on this measure. Children, mothers, and fathers completed the Family History of Eating (FHE-Child and FHE-Parent; Moreno and Thelen, 1993). Both versions of the FHE are scored along a 5-point Likert scale and are used to assess attitudes concerning body shape and weight, dieting, and familial eating patterns and behaviors. The parent version assesses parents’ perceptions whereas the child version focuses on the child’s perception of the family. Higher numbers re? ect greater familial concern with body shape and weight. Reliabilities in the current study were adequate based on the coef? cient ? for children (0. 80), mothers (0. 77), and fathers (0. 75). Peer In? uences Children completed the Inventory of Peer In? uence on Eating Concerns (IPIEC; Oliver and Thelen, 1996), which is a 30-item measure of peer in? uence on children’s eating and body shape concerns. The measure consists of 5 factors: Messages, Interactions/Girls, Interactions/Boys, Likability/Girls, and Likability/Boys. The Messages factor re? ects the frequency with which children receive negative messages from peers regarding their body or eating behaviors. The Interactions factors address the frequency with which children interact with peers (boys and girls) about weight and eating habits. The Likability factors measure the degree to which children believe that being thin will increase the degree to which they are liked by their peers (boys and girls). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale, where higher numbers re? ect greater peer in? uence. For the present study, total mean scale scores of all items were used to calculate a total peer in? uence score. The coef? cient ? in the current study (0. 94) was strong. Obesity Level The Quetelet’s Index of Fatness is a body mass index (BMI) that is computed for each child with the following formula: weight/(squared height). The Quetelet’s Index is used routinely as an index of adiposity and is correlated highly with skinfold and other fatness measures. Height and weight were obtained by self-report. Previous research has shown that young adolescents’ self-reports are highly correlated with actual measurements of weight and height (Brooks-Gunn et al. , 1987; Field et al. , 2002). Eating Disturbance and Body Image Children completed the Eating Disorder Inventory for Children (EDI-C; Garner, 1984), which measures self- Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson perceptions of eating disturbances and body image. Items are answered on a 6-point Likert scale and subscales are averaged to produce mean scale scores. Three of the eight subscales were used in the present study: Drive for Thinness (excessive concern with dieting, preoccupation with weight, and extreme fear of weight gain), Body Dissatisfaction (dissatisfaction with overall shape and with the size of those body regions of most concern to individuals with eating disorders), and Bulimia (thinking about and engaging in uncontrollable overeating, or binging behaviors). Coef? cient ? s were adequate in the current sample for the Drive for Thinness subscale (0. 83), the Body Dissatisfaction subscale (0. 63), and the Bulimia subscale (0. 76). On all subscales, higher numbers re? ect higher levels of body image concerns or related behaviors. Psychological Functioning Children completed 2 measures that assess their psychological functioning. The Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1992) is a widely used self-report measure of affective, cognitive, and behavioral symptoms of depression in children. Items are scores on a 0- to 2-point scale, with higher scores re? ecting higher levels of depression. The total CDI score, which showed good reliability in the current sample (coef? cient ? = 0. 91) was used. Children also completed the Self-Perception Pro? e for Children (Harter, 1985), which assesses children’s perceptions of themselves across different domains. For the current study, the global self-worth subscale was used. Note that the global self-worth scale consists of questions that are separate from any of the other domains (e. g. , the physical appearance domain is not subsumed under the global se lf-worth rating). Higher scores on the 4-point scale re? ect higher perceptions of global self-worth. Adequate reliability (coef? cient ? = 0. 79) was shown in the current sample. Procedures Active parental consent and child assent were given for involvement in the study. Once consent and assent were obtained and data collection was initiated, no children dropped out of the study nor did any children refuse to take part in the study. Participating children completed questionnaires in small groups at school. Examiners read each question aloud and children put their answers on the questionnaires individually. Parents were mailed their questionnaires (the FHE-P and a brief demographics form) and were asked to return their completed questionnaires to the researchers in a postage-paid envelope. Multiple mail- Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences Table I. Means and t-Tests for Gender Comparisons Variable Body mass index (BMI) Body Dissatisfaction Bulimia Drive for Thinness Family History of Eating—Child Inventory of Peer In? uence on Eating Concerns Perceptions of Teasing—Frequency Depression Global Self-Worth a Statistically 425 Girls (n = 77), mean (SD) 18. 91 (3. 80) 20. 29 (10. 10) 13. 38 (7. 32) 18. 21 (9. 64) 19. 99 (8. 38) 1. 80 (0. 84) 1. 62 (4. 62) 48. 83 (12. 06) 19. 06 (4. 74) Boys (n = 64), mean (SD) 19. 01 (3. 80) 18. 38 (8. 83) 15. 05 (7. 63) 13. 13 (6. 61) 17. 56 (5. 54) 1. 66 (0. 73) 1. 33 (2. 97) 49. 13 (13. 47) 18. 92 (4. 75) t 0. 09 ? 1. 18 1. 32 ? 3. 58 ? 1. 98 ? . 02 ? 0. 44 0. 14 ? 0. 18 p 0. 932 0. 239 0. 188 0. 000a 0. 049a 0. 311 0. 660 0. 892 0. 859 signi? cant. ings were sent in an attempt to obtain maximum parental participation. The ? nal response rate was 54. 6% (n = 77) for mothers and 34. 0% (n = 48) for fathers. RESULTS Gender Comparisons As expected, girls showed somewhat greater concern over weight and body image issues than did boys. Signi? cantly more girls (61. 0%) than boys (35. 9%) wanted to lose weight, ? 2 (2) = 13. 38, p 0. 001. As can be seen in Table I, there were additional gender differences on body image, restriction, and disturbed eating behaviors measures. When compared with boys, girls reported a higher drive for thinness, t(139) = ? 3. 58; p 0. 001, and a more troubled family history of eating concerns, t(139) = ? 1. 98; p 0. 05 (i. e. , girls reported receiving more messages regarding weight and dieting from their parents than did boys). Girls and boys did not differ signi? cantly on body mass index, body dissatisfaction, bulimic behaviors, peers’ eating concerns, or frequency of parental teasing. There were also no gen- der differences in depressive symptoms or global selfworth. Thus, there was some limited support for gender differences. Relations Between Body Image and Psychological Functioning Correlational analyses were computed in order to investigate the relations between body image and psychological functioning. As can be seen in Table II, signi? cant correlations were revealed for all of the measures for girls and most of the measures for boys. Girls’ reports of body dissatisfaction, bulimic tendencies, and drive for thinness were related to higher levels of depression and lower levels of global self-worth. For boys, body dissatisfaction was related to higher levels of depression and lower levels of global self-worth. Bulimic tendencies were not significantly related to either depressive symptoms or global self-worth. Drive for thinness was related to lower levels of global self-worth but was not signi? cantly related to depression. Thus, the expected pattern of results was found for girls consistently, and partial support was found for boys. Table II. Correlations Between Eating Disturbance and Psychological Functioning Variables 1 1. Body Dissatisfaction 2. Bulimia 3. Drive for Thinness 4. Family History of Eating—Child 5. Inventory of Peer In? uences on Eating Concerns 6. Perceptions of Teasing—Frequency 7. Depression 8. Global Self-Worth — 0. 42 0. 42 0. 32? 0. 26? 0. 44 0. 37 ?0. 42 2 0. 47 — 0. 25? 0. 23 0. 10 0. 29? 0. 14 ? 0. 01 3 0. 56 0. 55 — 0. 67 0. 32? 0. 60 0. 19 ? 0. 39? 4 0. 53 0. 56 0. 58 — 0. 12 0. 41 ?0. 03 ? 0. 03 5 0. 49 0. 55 0. 48 0. 53 — 0. 18 0. 29? ?0. 21 6 0. 32 0. 34 0. 27? 0. 44 0. 38 — 0. 29? ?0. 37 7 0. 58 0. 60 0. 55 0. 63 0. 59 0. 45 — ? 0. 58 8 ? 0. 64 ?0. 48 ?0. 49 ?0. 52 ?0. 52 ?0. 35 ?0. 71 — Note. Boys are in the lower left quadrant and girls are in the upper right quadrant. ? p 0. 5; p 0. 01; p 0. 001. 426 Relations Between Parental In? uences, Peer In? uences, and Body Image Disturbance Table II also reports the results of correlations for parental in? uences, peer in? uences, and body image disturbance. For girls, all of the correlations were signi? cant. Speci? cally, girls’ body dissatisfaction, bulimia, and drive for thinness were related to higher levels of family history of eating concerns, peer in? uences on eating concerns, and perceptions of teasing. For boys, 7 of the 9 correlations were signi? cant. Speci? cally, boys’ body dissatisfaction was signi? antly related to higher levels of family history of eating concerns, peer in? uences on eating concerns, and perceptions of teasing. Boys’ tendency toward bulimia was signi? cantly related to perceptions of teasing, but not family history or peer in? uences. Boys’ drive for thinness was related to family history, peer in? uences, and perceptions of teasing. Overall, there was somewhat more support for the connections between parental in? uences, peer in? uences, and body image disturbance for girls, but there was clear evidence of connections for boys when body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness were considered. Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson of family history and children’s reports of eating disturbance and body image concerns. These ? ndings suggest that children’s perceptions of family history and parents’ perceptions of family history are not related strongly. Missing Parental Data To assess whether there were systematic differences between parents who did or did not participate, t tests were conducted to examine any possible differences between children whose parents returned questionnaires and those children whose parents did not return questionnaires. With the exception of family history, t(139) = 2. 33, p 0. 02, no other signi? cant differences were revealed. Children whose parents returned questionnaires reported signi? cantly higher levels of family emphasis on weight and body shape (M = 20. 15, SD = 7. 90) than children whose parents did not return questionnaires (M = 17. 32, SD = 6. 20). There were no signi? cant differences between children with parental data and children without parental data on the following variables: Body Dissatisfaction (from the EDI-C), Bulimia (from the EDI-C), Drive for Thinness (from the EDI-C), peer in? ences (from the IPIEC), or perceptions to teasing (from the POTS). Thus, the exploratory analyses with parental data are likely to be generalizable for all of the variables other than family history. Parental Data For exploratory purposes, paired t tests were conducted to examine the differences in mothers’ and fathers’ reports of parental in? uence regarding weight and body shape con cerns. Mothers (M = 18. 57, SD = 5. 32) placed more emphasis on weight and body shape concerns than did fathers (M = 15. 94, SD = 5. 29), t(47) = ? 3. 96, p 0. 001. Further examination of parental differences revealed that mothers reported placing more importance on weight and body image concerns than did fathers for both their daughters, t(29) = ? 2. 93, p 0. 006, and sons, t(27) = ? 2. 61, p 0. 01. These results suggest that, regardless of child gender, mothers tend to place more emphasis on weight and dieting than do fathers. To examine the relationship between children’s selfreports and parental reports, correlations were conducted for parents’ reports of family history of eating concerns and children’s reports of eating disturbance and psychological functioning. A signi? cant correlation was revealed for mothers’ reports of family history and children’s reports of family history, r (77) = 0. 25, p 0. 05. These results suggest that mothers and children perceived similar familial in? uences regarding weight and body shape. In addition, signi? cant correlations were revealed for maternal report of family history and children’s report of global self-worth, r (77) = ? 0. 27, p 0. 05. No other signi? cant correlations were revealed for maternal or paternal reports DISCUSSION Overall, the results of this study support and extend previous research suggesting that both parental and peer in? uences are related to the development of body image and weight concerns in preadolescent girls and boys. It is likely that both factors play an integral part in children’s formations of maladaptive beliefs, attitudes, and expectations concerning weight, physical appearance, and body image. Further, there appear to be some differences but some similarities in how girls and boys experience these issues. Similar to previous research, girls in this study exhibited a somewhat greater degree of concern regarding weight and body image issues than did boys. Not only were they more aware of issues surrounding weight and dieting, but girls were more active in attempts to become and/or remain â€Å"thin. † In addition, it appears that girls received more messages within the family setting regarding weight and body image concerns. Although most investigations of body image concerns tend to recruit only female participants (e. g. , Attie and Brooks-Gunn, 1989; Cattarin and Thompson, 1994), the studies of gender differences Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences in body image have used primarily adolescent samples (e. g. , Childress et al. , 1993; reviewed in Cohane and Pope, 2001). The present results support similar ? ndings for preadolescent children, which indicates that these gender differences begin to develop at an earlier age, prior to any pubertal changes (Collins, 1991; Oliver and Thelen, 1996; Shapiro et al. , 1997; Wood et al. , 1996). The results of this study provide support for a relationship between body image concerns and depressive symptoms (Herzog et al. 1992) and self-esteem (Wood et al. , 1996). Overall, children who expressed higher levels of body image disturbance reported higher rates of depressive symptoms and lower levels of global self-worth. Although this pattern was more evident in girls, the same pattern existed for boys when body dissatisfaction was considered. Prior research has revealed support for both parental (Sanftner et al. , 1996; Thelen and Cormier, 19 95) and peer (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Oliver and Thelen, 1996) in? uences on children’s eating and body image concerns. This study found support for peer and parental in? ences for girls and to a lesser extent, for boys. Most of the research on peer in? uences has been conducted with adolescent populations of girls (Levine et al. , 1994). In this study, similar patterns emerged for boys and girls when body dissatisfaction (as opposed to bulimic tendencies) were evaluated. It may be that preadolescent boys are struggling with body dissatisfaction, but in such a manner that is not captured by the measurement of bulimic tendencies. The measurement of parental teasing from the POTS measure was particularly useful in helping to understand boys’ experiences. A number of previous studies have documented the connections between negative verbal commentary and body image concerns in girls (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Schwartz et al. , 1999). In the current study, boys’ perceptions of parental teasing were related to higher levels of body dissatisfaction, bulimic tendencies, drive for thinness, family history of eating concerns, and depression and lower levels of global self-worth. Thus, further exploration of perceptions of parental teasing in both boys and girls may be fruitful. On the basis of the results of this study, the implications for prevention and intervention are numerous. Given the wealth of support for the existence of body image concerns in preadolescent children (Collins, 1991; Shapiro et al. , 1997; Thelen et al. , 1992; Wood et al. , 1996), it is imperative to address weight and body image concerns with children prior to adolescence. Psychoeducational programs could be helpful to inform children of the parental, peer, and sociocultural in? uences on their attitudes and beliefs concerning weight and physical appearance. Several universal psychoeducational programs 427 have been instituted and evaluated for school-aged children (reviewed in Levine and Smolak, 2001). Although this study found some gender differences in preadolescent children’s experiences of body image disturbance, the common pattern of associations among variables for both boys and girls would suggest that preventive efforts could be targeted to girls and boys together. Intervention programs are also necessary given the connections between familial in? uences and body image concerns in young children and the resultant connections between body image concerns and eating disorders (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Steinhausen and Vollrath, 1993; Thompson et al. 1999). Parents need to be educated about the negative consequences of their own weight and body image issues on the development of related problems in their children (Archibald et al. , 1999). Treatment programs should take family functioning into account and should address the strong connections between body image concerns and poor psychological functioning (Steinberg and Phares, 2001). There are several limitations to t he study indicating that these results should be interpreted with caution. First, the ross-sectional nature of the study precludes interpretations related to causality. For example, it could be that higher levels of depression lead to higher rates of body dissatisfaction in both boys and girls. A prospective study of girls and boys from early childhood to adolescence and even adulthood could help answer the direction of causality. In addition, because there was a signi? cant difference in family history of eating concerns (FHE-C) between children with and without completed parental data, the preliminary analyses of parental reports have to be viewed cautiously. Although other studies have found relatively few differences between participating and nonparticipating mothers and fathers (Phares, 1995), the differences in this sample suggest that the parental data may not be representative of the larger population. This study attempted to limit common method variance by including parents rather than just relying on children’s self-reports. This inclusion of parents, however, led to other dif? culties. Future studies in this area could bene? t from more intense efforts to recruit and maintain parents for participation in research. Even with these limitations, this study provided support for parental and peer in? uences on the development of body image disturbance in preadolescent girls and boys. It is likely that both peers and family members contribute to the development of body image disturbance and weight concerns of young children. 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The Paradoxical Nature Of Love And Higher Being Essays - Philosophy

The Paradoxical Nature Of Love And Higher Being The Paradoxical Nature of Love and Higher Being Over many centuries, the concepts of love and the discovery of ?a higher being? have been mysteries to man. Both ideas have been discussed, analyzed, and disputed by various authors and philosophers. In the ancient past, love and discovery of a higher being have been thought to be primarily positive concepts, experienced only by those who are truly comfortable with their lives and situations. However, beginning in the mid- twentieth century, various poets, and other artists began expressing their emotions from a more vivid, realistic point of view. Love and the search for a higher self were found painful, and strange at times. Both concepts were achieved as a result of searching the soul and finding some type of truth concerning the individual. Various artists realized that in order to achieve or even experience these concepts, one must first experience negativity to grasp the depth of either. Throughout the poem ?In a Dark Time? by Theodore Roethke and the song ?I Want You? by Bob D ylan, one can easily recognize the paradoxical nature of both love and discovery of a higher self. Throughout Bob Dylan's love song, ?I Want You?, there are two paralleled yet very different themes that reign. Dylan describes numerous sad and contemptible situations, which are also valid aspects of life. He writes, ?The guilty undertaker sighs,/ The lonesome organ grinder cries/?/The drunken politician leaps/ Upon the street where mothers weep/ I want you?. All of the situations described are the exact opposite of the love that he feels for this person. However, the two contrasting emotions go together very well when describing Bob Dylan's deep love. They are each equally desperate and beseeching; one, from a lover to reciprocate his love, and the other to stress the urgency of the times. Bob Dylan continues to parallel these two opposite themes throughout the song, one complementing the importance of the other. The significance of death, as a part of the scheme of the world, is intensely stressed throughout ?I Want You?. Bob Dylan sings, ?Well, I return to the Queen of Spades/ And talk with my chambermaid./ She knows I'm not afraid to look at her./ She is good to me/And there's nothing she doesn't see? . Here, Dylan brings up the subject of death by making a reference to the ?Queen of Spades?, a well-known symbol for the matter. Though this significance of death is present, Dylan seems to undermine its negative severity, while idolizing it to some extent. Perhaps by using the metaphor of the Queen of Spades, Dylan would also like to compare her to his object of affection. Dylan plays upon these double-meanings by stating that he is not afraid to look at her, and that she (meaning death and his love) is good to him. By relating his love to the personification of death, Dylan is able to stress the urgency of his love. He is ready to submit himself wholly to his object of affection, even if sh e was the personification of death. By comparing this coveted person with her antithesis (death), Dylan is able to demonstrate the complications and depth of true love. Throughout the last stanza of ?I Want You?, the author comes face to face with an underlying issue concerning his object of affection. Dylan perhaps hints at the fact that death is coming face to face with his love. He sings, ?Now your dancing child with his Chinese suit,/ He spoke to me, I took his flute./ ?he lied/ Because he took you for a ride/ And because time was on his side? . Dylan leaves the key to his song at the end of the poem. The reason for the drastic comparison between that which is loved and that which is loathed is because the object of his affection has come face to face with death. The extreme differences between the two subjects fuse together at the end to form a full depiction of Bob Dylan's heart-felt situation regarding his love coupled with his loss. Theodore Roethke discusses a subject similar in theme, but covers a different subject. Instead of coupling death with love, in his